Termite management without POPs should be based on the principles of Integrated Pesticides Management (IPM). As a consequence the selection of alternatives to be used in an integrated way is a process based on damage assessment as well as termite identification and knowledge of termite biology and ecology.

	Termites
Beneficial roles	Damage	Monitoring & Detection
Assessment of damage & benefits		Identification: species, groups, exotic species
		Termite biology & ecology
Selecting & testing alternative strategies, Integrated Pesticides Management
Alternatives to POP termiticides for constructions	Avoiding termite dispersion	Alternatives to POP termiticides for agriculture and forestry

Termites

Termites are small (4 to 15 mm long) and variable in colour from white to tan and even black. They have three-main body parts: head, thorax, abdomen, and six legs. They are social insects and live in colonies.

Termites have different-looking individuals (called castes) living together in the colony. The largest individual is the queen. Her job is to lay eggs, sometimes thousands in a single day. A king is always by her side. Soldiers defend the nest. They have a large head with powerful jaws, or a bulb-like head that squirts liquid. The majority of the termites in the colony are called workers. They tend to the queen, build and maintain the nest and the system of tunnels and shelter tubes, or gather food, and feed the young, which are called larvae etc. Unique among social insects, termite workers can be male or female. Soldiers and workers are as a rule sterile.

Some individuals, called nymphs, develop wing buds which become longer with every moult. Finally they develop into the fully winged adults (alates) which swarm, find a partner and establish as new kings and queens (primary reproductives) a colony (if lucky). They vary in colour from black to pale brown and the wings are opaque grey to black. In large nests there may also be reproductives which do not fly. They can be derived from nymphs or workers (secondary and tertiary kings and queens respectively or more generic called “neotenics”) depending on species. Thanks to these, termite colonies can continue to exist even after the death of the primary pair. In theory termite colonies could live” indefinitely” with the help of multiple generations of these neotenics (i.e. one generation of reproductives is replacing the previous one). A species can also spread (especially in areas of introduction) using these neotenics. Parts of the population around a number of neotenics will form a new colony, separating either on own accord or accidentally from the main colony.

Termites can digest wood and other plant material thanks to the microorganisms living in their gut. They are “cold-blooded. In areas with cold winters, they tend to retreat deeper into the soil or remain in their nest, but may for example stay active throughout cold periods in heated buildings.

There are many people who think termites are white ants. They are not! Termites are an ancient insect order. Their roots go back more than 180 million years. Termites belong to the group of insects called Isoptera. This term is of ancient Greek origin and refers to the fact that termites have two sets of wings that look very much alike. Features that help to differentiate termites from ants include termites having straight, flexible antennae and a broad waist while ants have elbowed antennae and a narrow waist. The closest relatives of termites are cockroaches.

Habitats may include trees, pastures, crop fields, constructions, and dams. Once you know what types of termite you have, the next step is to determine where they naturally live and occur within the given country. It is important to establish whether the habitat being described is undergoing/has experienced a transformation. Often, urban areas are built on land used formerly for agriculture or on top of buried wood and crop debris. Such circumstances can be sources of future termite problems. For agriculture and forestry it is important to determine whether the termite problem is in native or exotic plants. For example, crops that are exotic to the country may be especially vulnerable to indigenous termite species. Under some circumstances the termite problem may be solved by replacing the crop with indigenous, more resistant species.

Beneficial roles

Termites can play beneficial roles in their habitats: for example, they decompose and recycle woody and other plant debris; through their tunnels they rejuvenate compacted soil by aerating it and by improving water absorbance; they fix nitrogen through micro organisms in their gut which improves soil fertility, etc. Many animal, plant and soil communities are dependent on termites and their activities.

Damage due to termites - key examples:
Constructions: buildings, wooden poles and railway sleepers, pipes, cable systems, furniture, retaining walls, bridges, roads and earthen dams and dykes.
Agriculture: plants under stress and exotic crops in particular, seeds, planting material (setts), seedlings, roots, stems, leaves, stored products.
Forestry: more likely trees under stress, exotic trees, trees unsuitable to a region or damaged trees, apparently healthy trees by some species of termite; piping of trees, i.e. attack of the inner heartwood, thus reducing the amount of milleable timber.

Monitoring

Regular inspections (see also detection) for signs of termite activity and breaches in barriers around constructions are a key component of termite management. It is important to take this into account at the design/construction stage of buildings to ensure ease of inspection of the structural components after the building is finished. Examples are removable skirting boards, slab-edge exposure, adequate crawl space (See POPS alternatives, building design).

Detection

Termites will make their presence known through their swarming, foraging and building behaviour and damage produced.

Swarming: swarms of winged termites consist of new potential kings and queens (collectively called alates) flying off to find a mate and start new nests. Swarming occurs seasonally and is highly variable depending on species and location, but is usually within the species-specific period triggered by rainfall.

Signs of subterranean termite infestations include shelter tubes on-, and tunnels inside different substrates , swarming holes and turrets, swarming of winged forms and appearance of foraging parties. Drywood termite infestations are usually obvious by the presence of characteristically shaped dry pellets inside wood or on horizontal surfaces beneath infested wood.

Darkening or blistering of wood in constructions is another indication of an infestation; damaged wood is typically thin and easily punctured with a knife or screwdriver. Visual searches combined with tapping (differences in sound of solid versus hollowed out timber) and probing tools are the most frequent means for detecting termite infestations in constructions.

More modern innovations for improving termite detection include odour detectors, feeding-sensitive devices (acoustic emission), fiber optics, microwave technology and infrared cameras. However, some of these technologies are experimental, and most are expensive and have limited availability. No detection technology is 100% effective in all circumstances. Using a combination of different technologies for detecting the presence of termites is the best approach.

Assessment of damage and benefits

It is necessary to assess the extent of damage termites can, or potentially can, cause to allow a realistic judgement of the need for an immediate continued use of POPs and subsequent development and implementation of alternative management/control methods,.  It is important to ascertain the reliability of data collected and to separate incomplete or anecdotal data from facts:

• Assess the importance of potential termite damage in terms of:
  • geography and percentage of population affected;
    
  • economic cost and impact on living conditions; and
    
  • effect on cultural property (e.g. historic buildings, religious sites etc.).
• Determine time of year or season termites are seen or their damage is visible, for example, spring, rainy season, or summer. Determining the time of year when termites are most active is important when implementing population monitoring, damage assessments and management strategies. 
• In agriculture, injury to plants does not necessarily result in measurable loss of yield quantity or quality. Control measures should be applied only when the pest status reaches a certain level, at which economic losses are expected. This level is called the ‘economic threshold’. Very little research on economic thresholds has been conducted for termites.

Also consider beneficial roles that termites play within the concerned habitats.

Identification

Species of termites:
Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations, which are reproductively isolated from other groups. Morphology (especially of soldiers and alates), cuticular hydrocarbon profiles, and increasingly molecular data are used to characterise termite species. There are more than 2,600 different species of termites now recognized. Some countries have species lists; however, for most countries knowledge of the termite fauna is incomplete. Consider sources of assistance and advice, for example, local experts within country or region; universities; international agencies; books and pamphlets; websites; international entomological and pest management experts. At the least, much of the termite biodiversity of a given area can be separated by habitat, nesting or feeding groups: e.g. subterranean, drywood, and mound or arboreal nesters, grass feeders or other locally used names. 

Ecological Termite Groups:
Based on nesting and feeding habits the following ecological groups of termites can be distinguished, drywood, dampwood and subterranean termites, and as subgroups to the latter arboreal termites and mound builders.

Drywood termites:  
This group of termites nests in wood above the soil level. They do not need contact to the soil or moisture because of a low requirement for water. There is some variance in the ecology and biology of species in this group; however, for the most part, drywood termites infest dry, sound wood. They require relatively high atmospheric humidity, and hence are often found in coastal areas or near larger bodies of water. They do not cause damage in agriculture and forestry. Their presence is often indicated by piles of grit/sand-like pellets which accumulate below the holes (often concealed) these termites use to expel their frass (recognizable as six-sided elongated pellets, a mm or less long). Drywood termites are common on most continents.

Dampwood termites:  
Dampwood termites have a restricted distribution. They derive their name from the fact that they live and feed in moist wood, especially stumps and fallen trees on the forest floor, although some species actually prefer drier wood. The overall pest status for this group is small compared to the other termite groups listed. However, some species can be localized but significant horticulture and forestry pests. If treatment of structural infestations is required the procedure includes local treatment with a chemical, infested wood removal, or prevention (use of chemically treated timber or keeping structural wood dry and away from sources of water and dampness).

Subterranean termites:
These termites require direct access to sources of moisture. They usually live and forage in the soil (sometimes many meters deep, wherever the water table is located), or near its surface. They maintain connection with the soil through tunnels in wood or through shelter tubes which they construct; these are made of soil, bits of plant material, and body secretions. Although sometimes hard to see, subterranean termite runways usually lead to sources of water and food. Subterranean termites are very numerous in many parts of the world, and cause much damage to constructions, in agriculture and forestry. Some subterranean termites may construct nests in trees or other above ground locations, as long as they have access to a source of moisture. Some mound builders are capable of building earthen towers 8 meters or more in height (see also mound-building termites).

Aerial infestations by subterranean termites:
Alates of several genera of subterranean termites (Coptotermes and Reticulitermes) are able to establish a colony in the upper parts of buildings, ships, railway carriages and the like, without the need for contact with the soil, as long as they have a source of moisture (for example leaking roofs, gutters, and plumbing). These infestations can be treated effectively by fumigation and baiting.

Mound-building termites:
Mound –building termites are technically a form of subterranean termite, but their nests can be readily visible, impressive, structures, and because of this feature these termites are often placed into their own ecological group. Their nests are covered by soil, some resembling large earthen mounds (more than 8 meters in height). Termite mounds which from their shear size or numbers often can dominate landscapes are common in Africa, Australia, Southern Asia, and parts of South America. Termite mounds are not found in North America or Europe.

Arboreal nesting termites:
They usually build carton nests in the shape of an inverted, elliptical orb hanging from trees or poles, fences and other constructions. Sometimes the nest can be located inside buildings, for example in the roof space. Some species build a single nest, but others build multiple, interconnected nests. These termites are important structural pests in tropical and subtropical America, from northern Argentina to Mexico, Asia, and Australia. They tend to prefer wood that is moist and decayed, but are also able to attack sound wood, paper and other materials. They reach the building through carton tunnels, which are easily visible on exposed surfaces of a structure. They either tunnel through the soil, or build galleries over the soil surface in order to reach a structure. With the latter behaviour they are even able to circumvent chemical soil barriers. However, because their presence is relatively easy to detect, direct nest treatment is often a management option.

Exotic termite species:
Exotic species are not naturally present in the country. They are often (accidentally) brought into countries through commerce.  For example, sugarcane stocks off loaded from ships or imports of timber products can sometimes be infested with invasive species of termite. If the exotic termite pest is discovered relatively early after entry, it is likely the problems within the country can be kept to a minimum, provided immediate actions are taken to assess the full extent and impact of the introduction and to manage/control the pest. 

Termite biology and ecology

Knowledge of termite biology and ecology is essential to termite management. Not all alternatives to POPs are applicable to all ecological groups of termites and measures will have to be tailored to the target species of termite. An example of the importance of basic investigations of termites is the observation that the presence of species or numbers of termite individuals at a given site can be very variable, depending for instance on rainfall or season. Therefore the decline in forager numbers or even absence of termites at a monitoring station may not reflect the effects of a chemical but just a normal seasonal fluctuation.

An overview of termite biology and ecology by continent can be found in the Report of the UNEP/FAO/Global IPM Facility Termite Biology and Management Workshop, February 1-3, 2000, Geneva, Switzerland, Annex III (p62 of the pdf file)

Selecting/testing alternative strategies to use of POPs

It is recommended to use an integrated pest management (IPM) approach, using a range of measures among those listed in overview 2 and 3.

In order to select the best alternatives to POPs for the management of termites, an evaluation of the available alternatives must be conducted. This evaluation should include the following considerations:

• Economic viability of the POPs alternative: the strategy must be affordable for the target population, keeping in mind though that initial costs will often be higher. However, on a long-term basis the costs of the alternative strategy must be acceptable.
• Efficacy of the POPs alternative in its intended area of use (by country or region, i.e. group of neighbouring countries): assessment of the efficacy must be conducted against local or similar pest species of termite and under local or similar environmental conditions to be relevant.
• Environmental acceptability of the POPs alternative: the alternative must not cause environmental problems, such as contamination of water or food crops, toxic effects on non-target organisms, or cause the creation of hazardous waste.
• Availability of the alternative: the alternative must be available in commercially significant quantities.
• Safety of the alternative to applicators and consumers: the alternative must be safe for the person who will be applying it or otherwise implementing the management measure, and safe for the general public when used in or around constructions, agricultural crops, plantations and forests.

For more details on each of these areas for consideration, see:
Finding Alternatives to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) for Termite Management p28-30;
for a comparison of costs of different protection measures has been made in Australia (1994) see Reducing and eliminating the use of POPs, p69

Integrated Pest Management (IPM), see also FAO definition in glossary

IPM is a strategy based on knowledge of the local situation and pest ecology. The emphasis is on damage prevention, for example by changes to the environment (e.g. removing sources of moisture that may attract termites), increasing plant vigour or biodiversity.
           
Priority is given to methods which do not negatively affect health and environment, such as cultural, physical, mechanical or biological methods, which are judiciously combined. Examples of non-chemical methods are: cultural: using resistant plants; physical: concrete slabs excluding termites from constructions; mechanical: nest destruction through flooding; biological: fungi and nematodes to kill termites.
           
Monitoring of pests and circumstances that influence them is a key pre-requisite for implementing IPM strategies. Damage tolerance of crops is taken in account: for example, some plants can tolerate considerable defoliation without a decrease in yield. Should interventions with chemicals become necessary they are limited to situations where economic damage is expected, that is, where the pest is likely to cause loss of value higher than costs and risks of control.  Negative effects of pesticides can also be reduced by the choice of application methods, such as using them in baits where limited quantities are needed; or by using more specific chemicals which target processes which do not occur in mammals, e.g. moult inhibitors or insect hormone mimics. These can however harm non-target arthropods such as crustaceans or pollinating insects.
           
The advantage of using IPM is sustainability, by reducing dependence on (persistent) pesticides, and damage to the environment (including natural enemies) and health is prevented. Pesticides can contaminate water systems and enter the food chain. Persistent pollutants travel far, for example Inuit mothers have significantly higher levels of mirex in their blood than mothers from more Southern regions.

Avoiding termite dispersion

In some parts of the world termites are dispersing, often introduced exotic species, such as Coptotermes formosanus in the USA, or Reticulitermes in Chile. In France, Reticulitermes santonensis or flavipes is expanding from southern and western regions to the north and the east.
           
The main means of dispersion are transport of materials (wood, wood products, packaging material, pallets, cargo containers, railway sleepers/ties, filling materials, mulches, soil, wastes) containing termites. To stop termites spreading to new areas, it is therefore imperative to destroy infested materials or to treat them. Incineration is one possibility; others are mentioned in alternatives for POP termiticides for constructions, e.g. fumigation. It is important to check local legislation and to limit negative effects on the environment as much as possible.