Termite Management

FINDING ALTERNATIVES TO
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPs)
FOR TERMITE MANAGEMENT

TABLE 1. Availability of Alternative Termite Management Strategies to POPs for Subterranean, Arboreal and Drywood Termites.

Management Strategy	Termite Type by Nesting			Time of Application of Management Strategy
	Subterranean	Arboreal Nesters and Subterranean Aerial	Drywood	Pre-/During Construction	Post- Construction
Building Design & Site Preparation	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes (best)	Yes (repairs)
Termite Resistant Construction and use of Preservative-treated Timber Products	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes (best)	Yes (repairs)
Physical Barriers	Yes	Yes, but limited	Yes	Yes (best)	Yes (repairs)
Termiticides to soil and topical and subsurface applications to wood.	Yes	Yes, but limited	Yes	Yes (best)	Yes
Baiting Systems	Yes	(insufficient data available for arboreal nesters)	No	No	Yes
Space Fumigation	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes
Thermal Control	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes
Biological Control	Experimental	Experimental	No	No	Yes

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding with the information in this table.
Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially available for your country/locality, and effectiveness
and safety information may not be available.

TABLE 2. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Building Design and Site Preparation

Requirement	Activity	Considerations

Building Design (in reference to termite prevention)	Choice of building materials	Soil contact and whether physical or chemical barriers will be used beneath the building material.
	Ease of inspection of structural components	Concrete slab edge exposure; removable skirting boards

Building Site Preparation	Remove obvious nests of pest species of termite from site	Difficult to accomplish and can be expensive, but best for long-term prevention.
	Remove tree stumps and logs and prune vegetation in and around building site.	Difficult to accomplish and can be expensive, but best for long-term prevention.
	Remove all construction and building debris from the building site	Doable and should be done for all new construction sites.
	Consider water drainage at site.	Fill or grade around building. Adding gutters for appropriate drainage away from building.
	Landscape with termite resistant materials.	Limit mulches to thin layers around the outside perimeter of buildings.
Progressive Inspection of Building Work	Ensure compliance with local building codes and regular termite inspections.	Inspections by competent, independent personnel

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding
on with the information in this table. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be
commercially available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also
may not be available.

TABLE 3. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Termite Resistant Construction and
use of Preservative-treated Timber Products

Types	Specifics/Mode of Action	Considerations
Masonry	Clay and concrete bricks, concrete blocks and stone, not a barrier to subterranean attack.	Termites may be able to penetrate mortar joints or use the hollow areas in the bricks and blocks
Concrete elements	Not a barrier to subterranean termite attack.	Produced with certain specifications that vary. Cracks commonly occur allowing termite entry.
Steel, aluminium and other metals	Exclusion for subterranean termites.	Limited availability
Naturally resistant timbers	Toxic/repellent for subterranean, arboreal and drywood termites.	Limited availability

Preservative-treated timbers
Ammoniacal Copper Quat (ACQ)	Metabolic poison	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites.
Chrommated copper arsenate (CCA)	Metabolic poison	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites
Copper Naphthenate	Metabolic poison	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites
Zinc Napthenate	Metabolic poison	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites
Copper Azole	Metabolic poison	Little published data.
Creosote Oil	Metabolic poison	Being phased out
Disodium Octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT)	Metabolic poison	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites
Extract of Azidirachtin	Repellant, Metabolic poison	Published information limited.
Neem Oil	Repellant, Metabolic poison	Published information limited.
Silica Gel	Repellant, very toxic metabolic poison	Environmentally very persistent, being phased out.
Cresote	Repellant and very toxic metabolic poison	Being phased out.
Construction practices
No wood-soil contact	Exclusion	Apply to subterranean and arboreal nesters.
Seal foundation cracks	Exclusion	Apply to subterranean and arboreal nesters.
Fill hollow-block construction	Exclusion	Apply to subterranean and arboreal nesters.
No exterior sliding in soil contact	Exclusion	Apply to subterranean and arboreal nesters.
Damaged wood removal	Exclusion	Apply to subterranean, arboreal, and drywood termites

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on
with the information in this table. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially
available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 4: Termite Management POPs Alternative: Physical Barriers

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/ Considerations
Concrete Slab	Exclusion	Has to be produced to certain specifications; joints and penetrations require additional protective measures. Wide range of materials and systems used, see below.
Graded Particles
Sand	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
crushed rock, granites and basalts	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
Glass	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
Solid Sheet Material
high grade stainless steel	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
marine grade aluminium	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
certain plastics	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.
Woven Stainless Steel Mesh
high grade stainless steel	Exclusion	These barriers can be breached and bridged over by foraging mud tunnels.

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on with
the information in this table. All physical barriers in this table apply tosubterranean termites. The above barriers
do not apply to drywood termites. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially
available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 5. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Termiticides in Soil or Other Carriers

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/Considerations
Chemical Applied to Soil or Foam

Repellant
Bifenthrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor	Applied as sprays or via reticulation systems (enclosed tubing). Termites can detect chemical and move from treated areas. Lethal effects are not passed among colony members.
Cyfluthrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Cypernethrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Fenitrothion	Toxicant, cholinesterase inhibitor
Fenvalerate	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Phenthioate	Toxicant, cholinesterase inhibitor
Permethrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Silafluofen	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Triazophos	Toxicant, cholinesterase inhibitor
Tralomethrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Zeta-cypermethrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor
Nonrepellant
Chlorpyrifos	Toxicant, cholinesterase inhibitor	Application as above. Termites unable to detect chemical. Lethal effects are delayed and may be passed among colony members.
Imidacloprid	Toxicant, non-repllent; nicotinamide inhibitor
Fipronil	Toxicant, non-repellent; GABA inhibitor
Chlorphenapyr	Toxicant
Thiome	Toxicant
Chemicals Applied as foams to soil or wood.	Many of the same active ingredients mentioned above.	Apply to subterranean, arboreal nesters, and drywood termites
Chemicals Applied as Synthetic Fibre Matting or Plastic Laminate Sheets
Deltamethrin	Repellant and toxic, sodium ion channel inhibitor	Acts as more chemical than physical barrier. Apply to subterranean termites.

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on
with the information in this table. Soil treatments can be breached and bridged over by subterranean
termite foraging mud tunnels. For drywood termites, the toxixant must be applied to tunnels used by
foragers to be effective; if missed, the termites will not die. Many of the management methods mentioned
may not be commercially available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information
also may not be available.

TABLE 6. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Bait technology

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/ Considerations
Diflubenzuron	Chitin synthesis inhibitor	In food matrix
Chlorflurazuron	Chitin synthesis inhibitor	In food matrix
Hexaflumuron	Chitin synthesis inhibitor	In food matrix
Triflumuron	Chitin synthesis inhibitor	Dust
Disodium octoborate tetrahydrate	Metabolic toxin	In food matrix/dust
Arsenic trioxide	Metabolic toxin	Dust
Hydramethylnon	Metabolic inhibitor	In food matrix
Sulfluramid	Metabolic Inhibitor	In food matrix

Biocontrol Agents
Fungus: spores, mycelium.	Grows through cuticle and utilizes entire termite body	Also biocontrol system (see Table 9). Use as bait and soil treatment is experimental.
Nematodes: infective stages	Invade; carry bacterium which produces lethal toxins	Bait system is experimental

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on with
the information in this table. There are no commercially available baits for drywood termites. Many of the
management methods mentioned may not be commercially available for your country/locality and effectiveness
and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 7.        Termite Management POPs Alternative: Fumigants
                      (This strategy is employed to deal with drywood termites, aerial colonies of subterranean termites
                      and cases where arboreal species nest inside structures.)

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/ Considerations
Carbon Dioxide	Asphyxiant	All of these gases are very toxic and require evacuation of structure prior to treatment.
Methyl bromide	Metabolic poison
Phosphine	Metabolic poison
Sulfuryl fluoride	Metabolic poison

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on with
the information in this table. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially
available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 8. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Thermal Treatment.
(Apply mostly to drywood and arboreal nesting termites.)

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/ Considerations
Electricity	Electric shock is best guess.	All have limited effectiveness and safety data and also limited in use.
Heat	Denature proteins using high temperatures via propane heaters.
Liquid Nitrogen	Disruption of cellular membranes using very low temperatures.
Microwave	Denature proteins using high temperatures via microwaves.

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on with
the information in this table. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially
available for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 9. Termite Management POPs Alternative: Biocontrol
(Apply mostly to subterranean and arboreal nesting termites.)

Active Ingredient	Mode of Action	Application/ Considerations
Fungus: spores, mycelium.	Grows through cuticle and utilize entire termite body	Bait systems (see Table 6); soil treatments; experimental and limited commercial
Nematodes: infective stages	Invade; carry bacterium which produces lethal toxins	Bait systems; experimental
Ants	Predator	Opportunistic; not suitable for targeted applications

Determination of the termite pest (subterranean, arboreal or drywood) is necessary before proceeding on with
the information in this table. Many of the management methods mentioned may not be commercially available
for your country/locality and effectiveness and safety information also may not be available.

TABLE 10. Crops Attacked by Termites

Crop

Country

A. ANNUAL CROPS

1. Cereals

Maize

Sorghum

Rice

Barley

Millet

Wheat

Argentina, Benin, Brazil, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Paraguay, South Africa, Saudi Arabian Peninsula, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Uruguay, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Yemen

Ethiopia, India, Malawi

Argentina, Brazil, India, Paraguay, Uruguay

India

China, Ethiopia, India, Yemen

India, Yemen

2. Pulse crops

Beans

Cowpea

Pigeon pea [= chich pea??]

India, Malawi

India [Chick pea], Malawi

3. Oil crops

Groundnut

Sunflower

Soybean

Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, China, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guyana, India, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Zambia, Zimbabwe

India, Yemen

India, Brazil, Guyana

4. Sugarcane

Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Caribbean, Central Africa Republic, China, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Mexico, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Philippines, Uruguay, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Venezuela

5. Root crops

Sweet potatoes

Potatoes

Yam

Cassava

India, Jamaica

Australia, India

Ghana, Nigeria

Brazil, Guyana, West Africa, Malawi

6. Vegetables

Tomato

Okra

Pepper

Egg plant

Cabbage

Saudi Arabian Peninsula, Yemen

Saudi Arabian Peninsula

India

B. PERENNIAL CROPS

1. Fruit trees

Guava

Tea

Coffee

Citrus

Cocoa

Passion fruit

Banana

Mango

Papaya

Grapes

India, Saudi Arabian Peninsula

India, Malawi, Pakistan, Peru

Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Kenya

Afghanistan, Algeria, Australia, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel

Ghana

Colombia, Trinidad, Venezuela

Malawi

Australia, India, Saudi Arabian Peninsula

Saudi Arabian Peninsula

Australia, India

2. Palm trees

Oil palml

Date palm

Coconut

Ghana, Nigeria, South Asia, Pacific Island

Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia

India, Malaysia, Nigeria, some South Pacific Island

3. Field crop

Pineapple

Cotton

Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Kenya, Paraguay, Uruguay

Central Africa Republic, India, Malawi, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen

4. Forestry plantations

Rubber Trees

Pine plantations

Hardwood plantations

Southeast Asia

Australia, Southeast Asia

Mahogany in south Pacific islands, Eucalyptus South America, street trees France,